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Neoclassical (from wikipidia)

Neoclassical

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Look up neoclassical in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Neoclassical may refer to:

General:

• Neoclassicism, any of a number of movements in the fine arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture beginning in the 17th Century
  • Neoclassical architecture, an architectural style of the 18th and 19th Centuries
  • Neoclassical sculpture, a sculptural style of the 18th and 19th Centuries

• Neoclassical ballet, a term describing the ballet style which uses traditional ballet vocabulary, but is generally more expansive than the classical structure allowed
• Neoclassical economics, a general approach in economics focusing on the determination of prices, outputs, and income distributions in markets through supply and demand
• Neoclassical growth model, a term used to sum up the contributions of various authors to a model of long-run economic growth within the framework of neoclassical economics
• Neoclassical school, a school in criminology that continues the traditions of the Classical School within the framework of Right Realism
• Neoclassical theology, a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead

Music:

• Neoclassicism (music), a musical movement of the 20th century particularly popular in the period between the two World Wars
• Neoclassical (Dark Wave), a genre of darkwave music
• Neo-classical metal, a subgenre of heavy metal music influenced by classical music
• Neoclassical (New Age), a subgenre of new age music

See also:

• Neoclassic (automobile), a car that is made somewhat in the image of the classic cars of the 1920s and 1930s

The neoclassical age

The Neoclassical Age

Why the name?

• reverence for classical authors and ideas
• imitation of classical forms--epic, ode, epistle, etc. (but in a complicated way--more on this in a moment)
• use and refinement of aesthetic and critical principles taken from classical authors such as Horace.

--> decorum: adherence to more or less well defined rules for what is appropriate to a certain genre of poetry.

• e.g. tragedy should depict characters of very high status--kings and/or nobles--and should be written, correspondingly, in a formal, elevated style.

view of poetry:

• craft, not "overflowing of genius"
• poetry is mimesis, not expression
• what poets represent is "nature"--something like "that which is permanently true." The most central part of nature to represent is human nature.
• --> poetry tends to deal with generalities and abstractions, not particulars.
• poetry is public in character, not private expression of individual

view of the world:

• world is a heirarchy, a Great Chain of Being
• correspondingly, humans are fallen creatures
  • especially prominent and central sin: pride.

Similar to Renaissance poetry and the Renaissance world view? yes, but

• new forms brought to prominence
• prosody: heroic couplet.

and especially: dominant mode of neoclassical poetry is satire.

• temporary definition: diminishment of a subject through ridicule

complicates everything. E.g mock epic.
[Epic = long narrative poem, serious, heroic character. Mock epic applies conventions of epic to a character or situation not worthy of such treatment.]

• violates decorum? mixes tragedy and comedy in one poem, and treats low subjects in a high form.
• complex attitude towards authority.
  • what's being made fun of? contemporary subject, or epic itself?
• implies certitude--but also undercuts certitude
  in keeping with the world view that I described earlier: humans in the middle of the Great Chain of Being

why? 2 examples:

• Civil War, execution of Charles I 1649, restoration of Charles II 1660
  • what becomes of your view of authority?
  • Augustan Age:
    • Augustus gained power after period of chaos
    • era of Virgil, Horace, Ovid
    • BUT Augustus was a tyrant; England torn by strife
• science
  • Charles II chartered Royal Society for Improvement of Natural Knowledge: "nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri" (I am not obliged to swear in the name of any master"
  • Pope, Swift not friends to "Moderns" generally, including scientific knowledge
  • BUT nullius addictus... was also epigraph to Johnson's Ramber Essays

Neoclassicism

Introduction to Neoclassicism After the Renaissance--a period of exploration and expansiveness--came a reaction in the direction of order and restraint. Generally speaking, this reaction developed in France in the mid-seventeenth century and in England thirty years later; and it dominated European literature until the last part of the eighteenth century. The New Restraint Writers turned from inventing new words to regularizing vocabulary and grammar. Complex, boldly metaphorical language, such as Shakespeare used in his major tragedies, is clarified and simplified--using fewer and more conventional figures of speech. Mystery and obscurity are considered symptoms of incompetence rather than signs of grandeur. The ideal style is lucid, polished, and precisely appropriate to the genre of a work and the social position of its characters. Tragedy and high comedy, for example, use the language of cultivated people and maintain a well-bred tone. The crude humor of the gravediggers inHamlet or the pulling out of Gloucester's eyes in King Lear would no longer be admitted in tragedy. Structure, like tone, becomes more simple and unified. In contrast to Shakespeare's plays, those of neoclassical playwrights such as Racine and Moliere develop a single plot line and are strictly limited in time and place (often, like Moliere's The Misanthrope and Tartuffe, to a single setting and a single day's time). Influence of the Classics The period is called neoclassical because its writers looked back to the ideals and art forms of classical times, emphasizing even more than their Renaissance predecessors the classical ideals of order and rational control. Such simply constructed but perfect works as the Parthenon and Sophocles' Antigone, such achievements as the peace and order established by the Roman Empire (and celebrated in Book VI of Vergil's Aeneid), suggest what neoclassical writers saw in the classical world. Their respect for the past led them to be conservative both in art and politics. Always aware of the conventions appropriate to each genre, they modeled their works on classical masterpieces and heeded the "rules" thought to be laid down by classical critics. In political and social affairs, too, they were guided by the wisdom of the past: traditional institutions had, at least, survived the test of time. No more than their medieval and Renaissance predecessors did neoclassical thinkers share our modern assumption that change means progress, since they believed that human nature is imperfect, human achievements are necessarily limited, and therefore human aims should be sensibly limited as well. It was better to set a moderate goal, whether in art or society, and achieve it well, than to strive for an infinite ideal and fail. Reasonable Philinte inThe Misanthrope does not get angry at people's injustice, because he accepts human nature as imperfect. Neoclassical Assumptions and Their Implications Neoclassical thinkers could use the past as a guide for the present because they assumed that human nature was constant--essentially the same regardless of time and place. Art, they believed, should express this essential nature: "Nothing can please many, and please long, but just representations of general nature" (Samuel Johnson). An individual character was valuable for what he or she revealed of universal human nature. Of course, all great art has this sort of significance--Johnson made his statement about Shakespeare. But neoclassical artists more consciously emphasized common human characteristics over individual differences, as we see in the type-named characters of Moliere. If human nature has remained constant over the centuries, it is unlikely that any startling new discoveries will be made. Hence neoclassical artists did not strive to be original so much as to express old truths in a newly effective way. As Alexander Pope, one of their greatest poets, wrote: "True wit is nature to advantage dressed, / What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed." Neoclassical writers aimed to articulate general truth rather than unique vision, to communicate to others more than to express themselves. Social Themes Neoclassical writers saw themselves, as well as their readers and characters, above all as members of society. Social institutions might be foolish or corrupt--indeed, given the intrinsic limitations of human nature, they probably were--but the individual who rebelled against custom or asserted his superiority to humankind was, like Alceste in The Misanthrope, presented as presumptuous and absurd. While Renaissance writers were sometimes fascinated by rebels, and later Romantic artists often glorified them, neoclassical artists expected people to conform to established social norms. For individual opinion was far less likely to be true than was the consensus of society, developed over time and embodied in custom and tradition. As the rules for proper writing should be followed, so should the rules for civilized conduct in society. Neither Moliere nor Jane Austen advocate blind following of convention, yet both insist that good manners are important as a manifestation of self-control and consideration for others. The Age of Reason The classical ideals of order and moderation which inspired this period, its realistically limited aspirations, and its emphasis on the common sense of society rather than individual imagination, could all be characterized as rational. And, indeed, it is often known as the Age of Reason. Reason had traditionally been assumed to be the highest mental faculty, but in this period many thinkers considered it a sufficient guide in all areas. Both religious belief and morality were grounded on reason: revelation and grace were de-emphasized, and morality consisted of acting rightly to one's fellow beings on this earth. John Locke, the most influential philosopher of the age, analyzed logically how our minds function (1690), argued for religious toleration (1689), and maintained that government is justified not by divine right but by a "social contract" that is broken if the people's natural rights are not respected. As reason should guide human individuals and societies, it should also direct artistic creation. Neoclassical art is not meant to seem a spontaneous outpouring of emotion or imagination. Emotion appears, of course; but it is consciously controlled. A work of art should be logically organized and should advocate rational norms. The Misanthrope, for example, is focused on its theme more consistently than are any of Shakespeare's plays. Its hero and his society are judged according to their conformity or lack of conformity to Reason, and its ideal, voiced by Philinte, is the reasonable one of the golden mean. The cool rationality and control characteristic of neoclassical art fostered wit, equally evident in the regular couplets of Moliere and the balanced sentences of Austen. Sharp and brilliant wit, produced within the clearly defined ideals of neoclassical art, and focused on people in their social context, make this perhaps the world's greatest age of comedy and satire. Adapted from A Guide to the Study of Literature: A Companion Text for Core Studies 6, Landmarks of Literature, ©English Department, Brooklyn College.

The neoclassical age

The neoclassical age

The period is called neoclassical because its writers looked back to the ideals and art forms of classical times, emphasizing even more than their Renaissance predecessors the classical ideals of order and rational control. Such simply constructed but perfect works as the Parthenon and Sophocles' Antigone, such achievements as the peace and order established by the Roman Empire (and celebrated in Book VI of Vergil's Aeneid), suggest what neoclassical writers saw in the classical world. Their respect for the past led them to be conservative both in art and politics. Always aware of the conventions appropriate to each genre, they modeled their works on classical masterpieces and heeded the "rules" thought to be laid down by classical critics. In political and social affairs, too, they were guided by the wisdom of the past: traditional institutions had, at least, survived the test of time. No more than their medieval and Renaissance predecessors did neoclassical thinkers share our modern assumption that change means progress, since they believed that human nature is imperfect, human achievements are necessarily limited, and therefore human aims should be sensibly limited as well. It was better to set a moderate goal, whether in art or society, and achieve it well, than to strive for an infinite ideal and fail. Reasonable Philinte in The Misanthrope does not get angry at people's injustice, because he accepts human nature as imperfect.

Neoclassical thinkers could use the past as a guide for the present because they assumed that human nature was constant--essentially the same regardless of time and place. Art, they believed, should express this essential nature: "Nothing can please many, and please long, but just representations of general nature" (Samuel Johnson). An individual character was valuable for what he or she revealed of universal human nature. Of course, all great art has this sort of significance--Johnson made his statement about Shakespeare. But neoclassical artists more consciously emphasized common human characteristics over individual differences, as we see in the type-named characters of Moliere.
If human nature has remained constant over the centuries, it is unlikely that any startling new discoveries will be made. Hence neoclassical artists did not strive to be original so much as to express old truths in a newly effective way. As Alexander Pope, one of their greatest poets, wrote: "True wit is nature to advantage dressed, / What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed." Neoclassical writers aimed to articulate general truth rather than unique vision, to communicate to others more than to express themselves.
Social Themes


Neoclassical writers saw themselves, as well as their readers and characters, above all as members of society. Social institutions might be foolish or corrupt--indeed, given the intrinsic limitations of human nature, they probably were--but the individual who rebelled against custom or asserted his superiority to humankind was, like Alceste in The Misanthrope, presented as presumptuous and absurd. While Renaissance writers were sometimes fascinated by rebels, and later Romantic artists often glorified them, neoclassical artists expected people to conform to established social norms. For individual opinion was far less likely to be true than was the consensus of society, developed over time and embodied in custom and tradition. As the rules for proper writing should be followed, so should the rules for civilized conduct in society. Neither Moliere nor Jane Austen advocate blind following of convention, yet both insist that good manners are important as a manifestation of self-control and consideration for others. (www.academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/neocl.html)

In brief, the neoclassical age came about as part of the 18th century, and it was considered to be an enlightenment movement. In this age, man was considered to have been related to the world, and he also had a social contract with life, where a poets mind was rarely a subject at all.... here I have put together some descriptions that I have understood the neoclassical age to consist of: Structure, order, miles, symmetry, constraints, common sense, harmony, ideal beauty, and it is also very universal. I came across some interesting facts about this age on titan.iwu.edu/~wchapman/britpoet/neoclassicalism.html, and it gave some general information for my better understanding. I choose to blog about this because differernt poets came out of diffrent ages and wrote about different things. For example I would categorize romantic poets as being influenced by freedom, disorder, asymmetry, imagination, emotion, disharmoneous, dissonance, and lastly relative beauty.

Neoclassical era:

Why the name?
because it gave reverence for classical authors and ideas. There were imitations of classical forms such as epic, ode, epistle, etc. (but in a complicated way--more on this in a moment)
The use and refinement of aesthetic and critical principles taken from classical authors such as Horace.
decorum: adherence to more or less well defined rules for what is appropriate to a certain genre of poetry.
e.g. tragedy should depict characters of very high status--kings and/or nobles--and should be written, correspondingly, in a formal, elevated style.

view of poetry:
Writing as a craft, and not "overflowing of genius" poetry is mimesis, not expression
The thing that poets are interested in representing is "nature"--something like "that which is permanently true." The most central part of nature to represent is human nature. Poetry tends to deal with generalities and abstractions, not particulars. Poetry is public in character, not private expression of individual

view of the world:
The world is a heirarchy, a Great Chain of Being, and correspondingly, humans are fallen creatures especially prominent and central sin: pride.

Translation Techniques

by Gabriela Bosco

As somebody who has been translating professionally for over 15 years now, I must confess the topic of Translation Techniques poses somewhat of a challenge; trying to pin down strategies that you use almost intuitively every day of your life becomes a rather difficult task.

That is why I decided to outline a widely-accepted list of translation techniques in the hope that the reader may become interested in knowing a little bit more about translation and its nuances.

Direct Translation Techniques

Direct Translation Techniques are used when structural and conceptual elements of the source language can be transposed into the target language. Direct translation techniques include:

• Borrowing
• Calque
• Literal Translation

Borrowing

Borrowing is the taking of words directly from one language into another without translation. Many English words are "borrowed" into other languages; for example software in the field of technology and funk in culture. English also borrows numerous words from other languages;abbatoire, café, passé and résumé from French; hamburger and kindergarten from German; bandana, musk and sugar from Sanskrit.

Borrowed words are often printed in italics when they are considered to be "foreign".

Calque

A calque or loan translation (itself a calque of German Lehnübersetzung) is a phrase borrowed from another language and translated literally word-for-word. You often see them in specialized or internationalized fields such as quality assurance (aseguramiento de calidad, assurance qualité taken from English). Examples that have been absorbed into English include standpoint and beer garden from German Standpunkt andBiergarten; breakfast from French déjeuner (which now means lunch in Europe, but maintains the same meaning of breakfast in Québec). Some calques can become widely accepted in the target language (such as standpoint, beer garden and breakfast and Spanish peso mosca and Casa Blanca from English flyweight and White House). The meaning other calques can be rather obscure for most people, especially when they relate to specific vocations or subjects such as science and law. Solución de compromiso is a Spanish legal term taken from the English compromise solution and although Spanish attorneys understand it, the meaning is not readily understood by the layman. An unsuccessful calque can be extremely unnatural, and can cause unwanted humor, often interpreted as indicating the lack of expertise of the translator in the target language.

Literal Translation

A word-for-word translation can be used in some languages and not others dependent on the sentence structure: El equipo está trabajando para terminar el informe would translate into English as The team is working to finish the report. Sometimes it works and sometimes it does not. For example, the Spanish sentence above could not be translated into French or German using this technique because the French and German sentence structures are different. And because one sentence can be translated literally across languages does not mean that all sentences can be translated literally. El equipo experimentado está trabajando para terminar el informe translates into English as The experienced team is working to finish the report ("experienced" and "team" are reversed).

Oblique Translation Techniques

Oblique Translation Techniques are used when the structural or conceptual elements of the source language cannot be directly translated without altering meaning or upsetting the grammatical and stylistics elements of the target language.

Oblique translation techniques include:

• Transposition
• Modulation
• Reformulation or Equivalence
• Adaptation
• Compensation

Transposition

This is the process where parts of speech change their sequence when they are translated (blue ball becomes boule bleue in French). It is in a sense a shift of word class. Grammatical structures are often different in different languages. He likes swimming translates as Er schwimmt gern in German. Transposition is often used between English and Spanish because of the preferred position of the verb in the sentence: English often has the verb near the beginning of a sentence; Spanish can have it closer to the end. This requires that the translator knows that it is possible to replace a word category in the target language without altering the meaning of the source text, for example: English Hand knitted (noun + participle) becomes Spanish Tejido a mano (participle + adverbial phrase).

Modulation

Modulation consists of using a phrase that is different in the source and target languages to convey the same idea: Te lo dejo means literally I leave it to you but translates better as You can have it. It changes the semantics and shifts the point of view of the source language. Through modulation, the translator generates a change in the point of view of the message without altering meaning and without generating a sense of awkwardness in the reader of the target text. It is often used within the same language. The expressions es fácil de entender (it is easy to understand) and no es complicado de entender (it is not complicated to understand) are examples of modulation. Although both convey the same meaning, it is easy to understand simply conveys "easiness" whereas it is not complicated to understand implies a previous assumption of difficulty that we are denying by asserting it is not complicated to understand. This type of change of point of view in a message is what makes a reader say: "Yes, this is exactly how we say it in our language".

Reformulation or Equivalence

Here you have to express something in a completely different way, for example when translating idioms or advertising slogans. The process is creative, but not always easy. Would you have translated the movie The Sound of Music into Spanish as La novicia rebelde (The Rebellious Novicein Latin America) or Sonrisas y lágrimas (Smiles and Tears in Spain)?

Adaptation

Adaptation occurs when something specific to one language culture is expressed in a totally different way that is familiar or appropriate to another language culture. It is a shift in cultural environment. Should pincho (a Spanish restaurant menu dish) be translated as kebab in English? It involves changing the cultural reference when a situation in the source culture does not exist in the target culture (for example France has Belgian jokes and England has Irish jokes).

Compensation

In general terms compensation can be used when something cannot be translated, and the meaning that is lost is expressed somewhere else in the translated text. Peter Fawcett defines it as: "...making good in one part of the text something that could not be translated in another". One example given by Fawcett is the problem of translating nuances of formality from languages that use forms such as Spanish informal tú and formal usted, French tu and vous, and German du and sie into English which only has 'you', and expresses degrees of formality in different ways.

As Louise M. Haywood from the University of Cambridge puts it, "we have to remember that translation is not just a movement between two languages but also between two cultures. Cultural transposition is present in all translation as degrees of free textual adaptation departing from maximally literal translation, and involves replacing items whose roots are in the source language culture with elements that are indigenous to the target language. The translator exercises a degree of choice in his or her use of indigenous features, and, as a consequence, successful translation may depend on the translator's command of cultural assumptions in each language in which he or she works".

If you are interested in reading further on the subject, please refer to Peter Fawcett, Translation and Language, St. Jerome, Manchester, 1997 (especially Chapter 4 on Translation Techniques).